Theories Of Representation Essay Example for Free

Theories Of Representation Essay They say two heads are better than one and I suppose, having two codes to represent knowledge is more advantageous than just relying on one code. Visual and verbal codes of representations enable the mind to have a more vivid memory of the information or concept that needs to be recalled (Kosslyn, Ganis Thompson, 2001). For example, if I need to remember directions in going to my friend’s place in a city I am visiting for the second time, I could easily visualize the appearance of the streets, the stores in the neighborhood and the location of my friend’s house, at the same time, this picture in my head can be validated by the verbal codes of the names of the street, the signage in the stores and a landmark in the neighborhood. If I relied only on visual codes, the appearance of suburban homes in a large neighborhood would be similar and I would have difficulty ascertaining which one is my friend’s place, on the other hand, if I only used verbal codes, then I have to spend the day going around the neighborhood reading each street sign until I get to the right street. Likewise, using both verbal and visual cues aid in remembering texts and information needed to successfully pass a test or an examination. Verbal codes are words, and when we memorize concepts and information, it is by memorizing the words, phrases and even sentences and paragraphs. Visual codes refer to pictures or our mental representations of what we have seen (Neath Suprenant, 2003). I study using my notes and outline of a particular subject, I read my notes, I read the book and I found out that I seem to remember more if I visualize the position of the text as I read it, or the kind of pen I used or even the color of the paper. It helped me remember information I have missed if I rely on verbal codes alone, since we know that our capacity to remember words are very small. Moreover, I find that children and even adults learn more when they are presented with information using rich media, the use of the computer and even direct instruction uses both verbal and visual cues (Kurtz, Gentner Gunn, 1999). Spelling programs in the computer present a series of letters and the child has to arrange the letters to spell the word correctly, the word is represented by a corresponding picture and when a child is confronted with the picture, she would associate the word to it and vice versa. For adults, skills training usually are hands on, experiential or involve modeling behavior or role playing. The learners are given input or materials in text to describe, define and understand the specific skill to be learned, the teacher then demonstrates the skill, which would be committed to memory facilitating the learning of new skills (Pylyshyn, 2002). An example is the use of machinery, if the new employee works with equipment for the first time, he/she can read the manual and then tinker with the machine to see how it would work, and again the learning of skills is based on the visual operation of the machine and the verbal codes in the manual. The verbal codes serves as the guide to how the machine should be operated, while the visual codes   present in the sequence of operations like what button to press first and what knob to turn is the behavioral manifestation of successful learning of the new skill. There are instances however wherein one of the codes would be dominant and the other supports or enriches the dominant code (Neath Suprenant, 2003), for example, in remembering texts and definitions, one would rely on verbal codes, but visual codes can help in remembering what those words were. In the same way, if we have to remember a scene from a movie, visualizing the scene would be more important, but remembering what was said in that scene would help us identify what the scene was about. In conclusion, two codes are better and we need to discover how it could work together to improve memory and learning. References Kosslyn, S., Ganis, G. Thompson, W. (2001). Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2: 635-642. Kurtz, K., Gentner, D. Gunn, V. (1999). Reasoning. In D.E. Rumelhart B.M. Bly (Eds). Cognitive Science: Handbook of Perception and Cognition 2nd   ed. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 145-200. Neath, I. Suprenant, A.(2003). Human Memory. Belmont, CA., Wadswoth/Thompson Learning. Pylyshyn, Z. (2002). Mental imagery: In search of a theory. Behavioral and Brain Science, 25: 157-238.

Time Capsule :: essays research papers

I would choose â€Å"A Rose For Emily† by William Faulkner and â€Å"Shiloh† by Bobbie Ann Mason to be put in a time capsule to be unearthed 100 years from now. Because â€Å"A Rose For Emily† was written in 1930, and â€Å"Shiloh† was written in 1982, I think that considering the two stories side by side would provide an interesting contrast between lifestyles of the early and late 20th century. By comparing setting and characterization in these two stories, people 100 years from now could get a feel for some of the things that have changed during the course of the 20th century and some of the things that have not.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"A Rose for Emily† and â€Å"Shiloh† are both set in the South, and both take place during times of change. In â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† the Grierson house was located on what had once been the â€Å"most select street† (80) but as the town changed the house had become crowded by â€Å"garages and cotton gins† (80). During the course of the story, the town of Jefferson gets its sidewalks paved, and free postal delivery is made available to all the residents. Emily, who â€Å"alone refused to let them fasten the metal numbers above her door,† (85) for the purpose of postal delivery, also refused to acknowledge the passage of time in any other way. The character of Leroy in â€Å"Shiloh† is much the same as Emily in that he fears and dislikes the changes brought by the passage of time. In the story â€Å"Shiloh,† Leroy notices with uneasiness that â€Å"subdivisions are spreading across western Kentucky li ke and oil slick† (69) and that â€Å"the farmers who used to gather around the courthouse square on Saturday afternoons to play checkers and spit tobacco juice have gone† (69). The â€Å"grand and complicated† (70) houses of the new subdivisions depress Leroy, and his wife Norma Jean thinks that the log house Leroy longs to build would be â€Å"inappropriate here in the new subdivisions† (70).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It would be interesting for people 100 years from now to compare the characters of Emily Grierson, Homer Baron, Leroy Moffitt, and Norma Jean Moffitt, and also it would also be interesting for them to compare the relationships between the two couples. Emily, who in some respects was a typical woman of her day, was dominated by the wishes of her father as a young woman, and later her treatment at the hands of Homer Baron became the main issue of her life.

Reconstruction: American Civil War and Black Man Essay

What were the objectives and long term effects of Reconstruction on political, economic and social development of the United States? Reconstruction, literally meaning the rebuilding of the shattered nation, was a pivotal movement between 1865 and 1877 in which the South was trying to be readmitted into the Union as well as a moment in time where blacks were attempting to gain a redefined status in American society. The period of reconstruction during the later half of the 19th century consisted of two primary periods, known as presidential and radical reconstruction. Each one had its own unique goals and accomplishments; both however making significant advances for both South and the freedmen following the end of the civil war. Politically, economically, and socially, America was affected significantly in these areas during the Reconstruction era. Although successful in its pursuit of readmitting the South and redefining the status of the black man, the greater of the two accomplishm ents for the country as a whole was the rise in importance of the black man in American society. While political participation became one of the leading goals for blacks, who thought and believed was a significant part of the overall definition of freedom, following the end of the Civil War, the South was devastated economically but starting from almost nothing, the Union was able to reassemble eventually into a united nation socially. The vision of freedom during this era was quite controversial during this time, as no single man appeared to have an acceptable and clear definition that applied to the common man. As Congressman James Garfield mentioned in 1865, â€Å"What is freedom? Is it the bare privilege of not being chained? If this is all, then freedom is a bitter mockery, a cruel delusion.† The idea of freedom meant two separate things for the white and black man. African American’s definition of freedom was based on their experiences as slaves and what they observed around them in what they considered a free society. Public education and the sharing of righ ts and opportunities as other American citizens were some of the ideals that swept through the minds of the once previous slaves. Henry Adams, who was an emancipated slave in the state of Louisiana stated, â€Å"If I cannot do like a white man, I am not free†; a common theme for all blacks during this redefining stage of the black man. Succession from the Union created a difficult path for the South back into the Union following the end of the Civil War in 1866. One of the most  difficult objectives for the country as a whole was to gain the cooperation of the South in attempt to redefine the status of the black man; a goal that the South clearly and for good reason wanted no part of. Although not blatantly said before civil war broke out between the North and South, the war was fought over the debate of slavery. Therefore, as the North requested the South’s cooperation in honoring the goals and motives of this movement, there was an almost expected surge in opposition from those below the Mason-Dixie line. Social developments among the black communities created lasting effects upon American Soc iety which has lasted more than a century. Institutions like churches became centers for schools and social events, and almost a century later became strongholds for speeches that propelled the civil rights movement. The first black universities began to spring up across the country suck as Fisk University in Tennessee, Hampton University in Virginia, and Howard University in Washington D.C. Black family life which previously never existed came into existence. These social advances sparked the political and economical changes that would soon follow. Presidential Reconstruction, 1865 through 1867, consisted of a series of proclamations that had one goal, to reunite the nation. The man behind all the action, President Andrew Johnson, Lincoln’s successor, became the man in charge of the restoration of the Union. Although President Andrew Johnson once supported emancipation under Lincoln, this would soon change as he came into power. With the objective of admitting the South back into the Union, the president restored political and property rights through a series of pardons to all white southerners who agreed to take an oath of allegiance. Even though this pardon was meant to exclude leaders of the once confederates and wealthy planters, they were also given the opportunity to take an oath of allegiance. Furthermore, President Johnson appointed provisional governors to call state conventions that would create loyal governments. Unfortunately, these ‘loyal governments’ would become primarily infested with confederate leaders. The only rules that the South was required to abide by was the abolishment of slavery, reunite with the union, and pay confederated debt. But in turn, the president allowed the new governments to manage their local affairs; foreshadowing a disastrous outlook for the freedom movement of the black man. Soon after the end of the Civil War in 1865, Frederick Douglas said, â€Å"Sla very is not abolished  until the black man has the ballot.† Political participation became one of the leading goals for blacks, who thought and believed was a significant part of the overall definition of freedom. Having agreed to allow local governments in the South to govern their own affairs, this created a wall of opposition to this objective of political participation. Black codes, put into effect by southern governments to regulate blacks’ lives granted legalized marriage, ownership of property, and limited access to the courts. At the same time the black codes denied blacks voting rights and the ability to testify against whites in courts; ultimately creating a greater divide not only between the North and the South, but the North and the President of the United States. However, the ratification of the fourteenth amendment following the passing of the Civil Rights Bill in April of 1866 put citizenship into effect for all Americans, requiring the federal government to protect the rights of all Americans. This amendment stated that any state that denied the right for blacks to vote would have their representation in Congress reduced. This did not grant blacks the right to vote, however put political democracy in favor of the black community. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 marked the end of Presidential Reconstruction, and marked the beginning of a new period called Radical Reconstruction. This act along with the Tenure of Office Act, were just few of the political moves by Congress which characterized this time period. However most significant was the fifteenth amendment which under President Ulysses Grant in 1868 made it illegal to deny the right to vote based on race, literacy tests, property qualifications, and poll taxes. By 1870, the desire to have all states readmitted to the Union was completed. A few years previous of this, new state constitutions slowly started to form. Under these new state constitutions, the first established state-funded systems of free public education, prisons, orphanages, and institutions for the insane came to be. Further political action that affected American society which in some way or another has left an impact on society today is the Freedmen’s Bureau. This agency created in March of 1865 was put into place by Congress to establish schools, help the needy, settle disputes between blacks and whites, and finally maintain equal treatment for blacks and those loyal of the union in front of the courts. This bureau had a lasting impact, creating an astounding 3,000 schools, and ran hospitals that had been put into place  during the war. In addition, close to 250 blacks took office during the Reconstruction Era, marking a change in the direction of politics of the country as a whole. Following the end of the Civil War, the South was devastat ed economically. Numerous short-term effects became prominent, such as the situation with share cropping and the crop-lien system; two systems in which the black man as well as the white man came out as losers. However, due to the tremendous devastation that did take place railroads began to penetrate the South where investors and merchants took advantage of the ongoing situation. With the growing presence of the railroad companies in the South and their rapid expansion, towns and cities further inland became the market places for merchants and townsfolk. Cities like Atlanta for once were able to trade directly with the North. These cities expanded quickly and became enormous centers for great populations of people which are present today. Infrastructure, factories, and towns popped-up where they never would have existed without the introduction of the railroad. The Reconstruction Era was a period of time in American history which was represented by a country in shambles, a country divided not only b y the famous Mason-Dixie line but on grounds of ethics and morals. A country that had been devastated by war, and there existed points at which the conflict was not only between the North and South but also against the President of the United States like that of President Andrew Johnson. Starting from almost nothing, the Union was able to reassemble eventually into a united nation. The country was by no means unified on their perspectives such as politics or black’s place in society, but at least they were once again one union. Although unified once more, the reclassification of the black man in society far out-did the importance associated with readmitting the South into the Union. A country separated on accounts of civil war is by no means an easy situation to deal with. The process by which Congress and the North as well as South had to undergo in order to become what we now call the United States is no less than a marvel. But a greater success story can be found within the decade or so we call the Reconstruction Era. The freedom allotted to the black men that were once under white control is absolutely incredible. Not only was slavery abolished and black men allowed to vote thanks to the 15th amendment, but they finally took hold in American life with their own communities and establishments. There exists no other point  in American history besides the Revolutionary War that a group of people fought so hard, in desperation for their rights and the opportunity to live freely with the ability to reap nearly the same benefits as their counter parts, the white man. Within 12 years the black men were no longer slaves to a wealthy plantation owner, and no longer were they limited in society due to the belief that they were completely ignorant, but were now part of a nation that took significant progress in making blacks their equals. Although not perfect, an entire race was finally being recognized by society as a product-full part of society. A shattered nation was by no means an understatement in describing the condition of America following the Civil War. Not only having the overwhelming task of coming to terms of agreements with the succeeded states in order to re-unify the country, the country was also placed with another enormous situation, having to redefine the status of blacks in American Society. America has marveled many over its history, and has not let-up in its ability to amaze those in the accomplishments and advances made during this period of time. Whether it be the ratification of the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments, or the fact that by 1870 the once divided nation was whole again. America has the ability to overcome even with the odds against them. The railroad system not only penetrated the South, but created a lasting impact like that of bustling towns which have now grown into tremendous cities such as Atlanta. Public education finally came to the forefront with the creation of Universities still prominent today like that of Fisk University. However far apart and at the same time inter-related the objectives of the Reconstruction Era were, the re-admittance of the South into the Union was not the highlight of the late 19th century, but masked by the success story of the redefining of the black man in American society.

Why Do We Yawn Physical and Psychological Reasons

Everybody yawns. So do our pets. While you can suppress or fake a yawn, theres really nothing you can do to control the reflex. So, it makes sense yawning must serve some purpose, but why do we yawn? Scientists studying this reflex have proposed several reasons for the phenomenon. In humans, yawning appears to be caused by both physiological and psychological factors. Key Takeaways: Why Do We Yawn? A yawn is a reflex in response to sleepiness, stress, boredom, or seeing another person yawn.The process of yawning (called oscitation) involves inhaling air, stretching the jaw and eardrums, and then exhaling. Many people stretch other muscles when yawning.Researchers have proposed many reasons for yawning. They can be categorized as physiological reasons and psychological reasons. In either case, the underlying stimulus alters neurochemistry to elicit the response.Medications and medical conditions can affect the rate of yawning. Physiological Reasons for Yawning Physically, a yawn involves opening the mouth, inhaling air, opening the jaw, stretching the eardrums, and exhaling. It may be triggered by fatigue, boredom, stress, or seeing someone else yawn. Because its a reflex, yawning involves an interplay of neurotransmitters associated with tiredness, appetite, tension, and emotions. These chemicals include nitric oxide, serotonin, dopamine, and glutamic acid. Scientists know certain medical conditions (e.g., multiple sclerosis, stroke, and diabetes) alter yawning frequency and the levels of cortisol in saliva following a yawn. Because yawning is a matter of neurochemistry, there are several possible reasons it can happen. In animals, some of these reasons are easily understood. For example, snakes yawn to realign their jaws after eating and to aid respiration. Fish yawn when their water lacks sufficient oxygen. Determining why humans yawn is harder to pinpoint. Because cortisol levels increase after yawning, it may increase alertness and indicate a need for action. Psychologists Andrew Gallup and Gordon Gallup believe yawning helps improve blood flow to the brain. The premise is the stretching the jaw increases blood flow to the face, head, and neck, while the deep breath of a yawn forces blood and spinal fluid to flow downward. This physical basis for yawning may explain why people yawn when they are anxious or stressed. Paratroopers yawn prior to exiting aircraft. Gallup and Gallups research also indicated yawning helps cool the brain, as the colder inhaled air chills the blood forced to flow during the yawn. The Gallup studies included experiments on parakeets, rats, and humans. Gallups team found people yawn more when the temperature is cooler and yawns are more likely to have a chilling effect than when the air is hot. Budgie parakeets also yawned more in cooler temperature than hot temperatures. Rat brains cooled slightly when the animals yawned. However, critics point out that yawning seems to fail just when an organism needs it most. If yawning cools the brain, it makes sense it would function when body temperature would benefit from regulation (when its hot). Psychological Reasons for Yawning To date, over 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed. However, there is little agreement in the scientific community regarding which hypotheses are correct. Yawning may serve a social function, particularly as a herd instinct. In humans and other vertebrates, yawning is contagious. Catching yawns may communicate fatigue to members of a group, helping people and other animals synchronize waking and sleeping patterns. Alternatively, it may be a survival instinct. The theory, according to Gordon Gallup, is that contagious yawning may help members of a group become more alert so they can detect and defend against attackers or predators. In his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin observed baboons yawning to threaten enemies. Similar behavior has been reported in Siamese fighting fish and guinea pigs. At the other end of the spectrum, Adelie penguins yawn as part of their courtship ritual. A study conducted by Alessia Leone and her team suggests there are different types of yawns to convey different information (e.g., empathy or anxiety) in a social context. Leones research involved a type of monkey called a gelada, but its possible human yawns also vary according to their function. Which Theories Are Correct? Its clear yawning is caused by physiological factors. Fluctuations in neurotransmitter levels trigger a yawn. The biological benefits of yawning are clear in some other species, but not so obvious in humans. At a minimum, yawning briefly increases alertness. In animals, the social aspect of yawning is well-documented. While yawning is contagious in humans, researchers have yet to determine whether the psychology of yawning is a leftover from human evolution or whether it still serves a psychological function today. Sources Gallup, Andrew C.; Gallup (2007). Yawning as a brain cooling mechanism: Nasal breathing and forehead cooling diminish the incidence of contagious yawning. Evolutionary Psychology. 5 (1): 92–101.Gupta, S; Mittal, S (2013). Yawning and its physiological significance. International Journal of Applied Basic Medical Research. 3 (1): 11–5. doi:10.4103/2229-516x.112230Madsen, Elanie E.; Persson, Tomas; Sayehli, Susan; Lenninger, Sara; Sonesson, GÃ ¶ran (2013). Chimpanzees Show a Developmental Increase in Susceptibility to Contagious Yawning: A Test of the Effect of Ontogeny and Emotional Closeness on Yawn Contagion. PLoS ONE. 8 (10): e76266. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076266Provine, Robert R. (2010). Yawning as a Stereotyped Action Pattern and Releasing Stimulus. Ethology. 72 (2): 109–22. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1986.tb00611.xThompson S.B.N. (2011). Born to yawn? Cortisol linked to yawning: a new hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses. 77 (5): 861–862. doi:10.1016/j.meh y.2011.07.056